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Table of Contents
Ch.1 Basic Principles …………………………………………..…… 1
1.1 Introduction …………………………………..………………… 2
1.2 The Problem of Antiknock Quality ……………………..……… 2
1.3 Octane Number ………………………………………………….. 2
1.4 Composition Effect on Octane Number ………………….…….. 3
1.5 Reforming ………………………………………………………. 6
1.5.1 Thermal Reforming …………………..…………………. 6
1.5.2 Catalytic Reforming ………………………..…………… 7
1.6 Feed Treatment By Hydrogen……………………………………. 11
1.6.1 Hydrofining ……………………………..………………. 12
Ch.2 The Catalytic Reforming Process …………………………… 14
2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………..….. 15
2.2 Feed to Catalytic Reforming ………………………………….. 16
2.3 Product from Catalytic Reforming ……………………………. 17
2.3.1 The Typical Yield ………………………………………. 18
2.3.2 Reformate Composition ………………………………… 19
2.3.3 Reformate Specification …………………….…………. 20
2.4 Catalytic Reforming Techniques ………………..…………….. 22
2.4.1 Fixed-Bed Technology ……………………………..….. 24
2.4.2 Moving-Bed Technology ……………………………….. 34
2.4.3 Fluid-Bed Technology ………………………………….. 41
Ch.3 Process Chemical Reactions and Thermodynamics ………. 43
3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………..….. 44
3.2 Process Reactions …………………………………………..…. 44
3.2.1 Dehydrogenation of Naphthenes ……………………….. 44
3.2.2 Isomerization of Paraffins and Naphthenes …………….. 45
3.2.3 Dehydrocyclization of Paraffins ………………….……. 45
3.2.4 Hydrocracking and Dealkylation ………………….…… 45
3.3 Relative Reaction Rate ………………………………………… 47
3.4 Heats of Reaction …………………………………………..…. 50
Ch.4 Catalytic Reforming Catalyst ………………………………. 51
4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………. 52
4.1.1 Classification of Catalyst ………………………….……. 52
4.1.2 Main Types of Catalyst ……………………………..…. 54
4.1.3 General Catalyst Characterization and Properties ……… 54
4.2 Types of Catalytic Reforming Catalyst ………………………… 57
4.2.1 Platinum on Chlorinated Alumina ……………………… 57
4.2.2 Bimetallic ………………………………………………. 58
4.3 Effect of Platinum content of Catalyst ………………………… 60
4.4 Catalyst Preparation ……………………………………………. 61
4.4.1 Optimization of the Formation …………………..…….. 61
4.4.2 Unit Operations ………………………………..………. 62
4.5 Reaction Mechanisms ………………………………………….. 68
4.5.1 Hydrogen Action ……………………………….………. 69
4.5.2 Sulfur Action ……………………..……………………. 71
4.6 Catalyst Deactivation ………………………………………….. 73
4.6.1 Characterization of Coke ……………………………….. 73
4.6.2 Effects of Reaction Conditions on Coking Deactivation . 74
4.6.3 Mechanism of Coke Formation ………………………… 78
4.6.4 Poisoning of Naphtha Reforming Catalyst …………….. 80
4.7 Catalyst Regeneration …………………………………………. 87
4.7.1 Effect of the Type of Process on Cycle length ………… 87
4.7.2 Catalyst Regeneration Steps ……………………..…….. 87
4.7.3 Factors Affecting Coked Catalyst Reactivity ………….. 87
4.7.4 Regeneration of coked Catalyst ………………….…….. 87
4.7.5 Regeneration of Sulfur-Contaminated Catalyst …….….. 91
4.8 Procedure of Regeneration ……………………………………. 92
4.8.1 Pre-Shutdown ………………………………………….. 92
4.8.2 Shutdown ………………………………………….…… 92
4.8.3 Carbon Burn ……………………………………………. 92
4.8.4 Oxidation ………………………………………………. 93
4.8.5 Cool Down ……………………………………..………. 93
4.8.6 Nitrogen Purge …………………………………………. 93
4.8.7 Reduction ………………………………………………. 93
4.8.8 Sulfate Removal ……………………………………….. 94
4.8.9 Start-Up ……………………………………………..…. 94
Ch.5 Catalyst Reforming Parameters …………………………….. 95
5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………. 96
5.2 Temperature ……………………………………………………. 96
5.3 Reaction Pressure ……………………………………………… 98
5.4 Hydrogen to Hydrocarbon Ratio ………………………..…….. 99
5.5 Space Velocity ……………………………………………..… 101
5.6 Feedstock Properties …………………………………………. 102
Ch.6 Hazard Assessment ………………………………………… 105
Ch.7 Plant Design ………………………………………………… 118
Ch.8 Design ………………………………………………….…… 122
8.1 Material Balance ……………………………………………… 123
8.2 Heat Exchanger Design ………………………………………. 126
8.3 Furnace Design ………………………………………………. 143
8.4 Reactor Design ………………………………………….…… 163
8.5 Stabilizer Design ………………………………………….…. 168
8.6 Pump Design ………………………………………………… 177
8.7 Compressor Design ………………………………………….. 182
8.8 Tank Design …………………………………………………. 187
References ………………………………………………………… 191